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What is the primary form in which calcium is stored in the bone?
Look for the calcium phosphate salt that gives the bone rigidity and strength.
What is the main role of calcium ions in the blood?
Consider the effect of calcium ions on sodium channels in cell membranes.
In which intracellular compartments is calcium stored?
Look for compartments related to energy production and protein synthesis.
Which proteins do calcium ions bind to in skeletal and smooth muscles, respectively?
Look for proteins involved in muscle contraction regulation.
What can result from hypocalcemia in terms of neuromuscular function?
What is the approximate concentration of free calcium ions in the blood?
Look for the concentration of biologically active calcium ions in the blood.
Which type of transport mechanism is involved in the movement of calcium ions against their concentration gradient?
Consider the type of transport that requires energy expenditure to move ions against their concentration gradient.
What is the function of calcium ions as second messengers in cells?
Look for the role of calcium ions in enzyme activation.
Where is calcium mainly absorbed in the body?
Look for the part of the gastrointestinal tract where calcium absorption predominantly occurs.
Which hormones regulate calcium and phosphate ion concentrations in the blood?
Look for hormones related to calcium and vitamin D metabolism.
Which cells in the parathyroid glands produce parathormone?
Look for the cell type responsible for the production of parathormone in the parathyroid glands.
What are the two main types of cells in the parathyroid glands?
Look for the cell types specific to the parathyroid glands.
In which section of the nephron is the tubular calcium regulated?
Look for the part of the nephron involved in the regulation of tubular calcium.
Which type of transport is responsible for calcium absorption when calcium content in the small intestine is high?
Look for the transport method that becomes more important with high calcium content in the small intestine.
From which embryonic origin are the parathyroid glands derived?
Look for the embryonic origin related to the development of the parathyroid glands.
What type of nerve supply does the parathyroid glands mainly receive?
Look for the type of nerve fibers associated with the parathyroid glands.
What are the main sources of dietary calcium?
Look for the food groups that are particularly rich in calcium.
Which hormone is responsible for hypercalcemia in patients with certain tumors?
Look for the hormone related to hypercalcemia in tumor patients.
Which type of bone cell is derived from mesenchymal stem cells in bone marrow?
Look for the bone cell type involved in the synthesis of osteoid.
What is the primary function of parathormone (PTH)?
Look for the primary function related to ion concentrations in the blood.
Which molecule decreases RANKL binding to its RANK receptor, reducing osteoclast formation and activation?
Look for the molecule that reduces osteoclast formation and activation.
What type of receptors does parathormone bind to?
How does parathormone (PTH) stimulate osteoclast activity?
Look for the indirect way PTH stimulates osteoclast activity.
What is the effect of PTH on calcium and phosphate reabsorption in the kidneys?
Look for the effects of PTH on calcium and phosphate reabsorption in the kidneys.
Which hormone synthesis does PTH stimulate in the cells of the proximal tubules in the kidneys?
Look for the hormone synthesis that PTH stimulates in the kidneys.
How does PTH indirectly influence calcium and phosphate absorption in the small intestine?
Look for the indirect action of PTH on calcium and phosphate absorption in the small intestine.
What is the main stimulus for parathormone (PTH) release from the chief cells of the parathyroid glands?
Look for the factor that triggers PTH release.
Which enzyme catalyzes the formation of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25 OH-D3) in the liver?
Look for the enzyme responsible for the first hydroxylation step in the liver.
What is the primary bioactive steroid derivative of vitamin D3?
Look for the most biologically active form of vitamin D3.
Which of the following tissues is NOT principally involved in calcium metabolism?
Think about the tissues where calcium is absorbed, stored, or regulated.
Calcitriol stimulates calcium absorption in the small intestine through which of the following mechanisms?
Calcitriol stimulates multiple mechanisms of calcium absorption.
Which protein has a higher affinity for calcium ions than the brush border proteins involved in the initial transfer process?
This protein is involved in the transport of calcium ions from the luminal brush border to the serosal membranes.
Calcitriol inhibits phosphate reabsorption indirectly in the kidneys by stimulating the synthesis of which hormone?
This hormone has a profound inhibitory control on phosphate metabolism.
What is the direct negative feedback mechanism between renal calcitriol production and its main stimulus, PTH?
Which section of the small intestine is primarily involved in calcium transport?
Calcium transport occurs mainly in the upper sections of the small intestine.
In the kidneys, calcitriol stimulates the reabsorption of calcium in which part of the nephron?
Think about where calbindin protein synthesis is stimulated.
What is the main stimulus for calcitonin synthesis and release?
Think about what triggers the release of calcitonin from the parafollicular cells.
Where is calcitonin mainly metabolized in the body?
Consider the primary organs responsible for metabolizing hormones.
Which type of receptor does calcitonin bind to in target cell membranes?
Think about the type of receptor specific to calcitonin.
In the kidneys, calcitonin primarily affects which part of the nephron?
Consider where calcitonin receptors are mainly located in the kidneys.
What is the main stimulus for calcitonin synthesis and release?
Think about what triggers the release of calcitonin from the parafollicular cells.
Where is calcitonin mainly metabolized in the body?
Consider the primary organs responsible for metabolizing hormones.
Which type of receptor does calcitonin bind to in target cell membranes?
Think about the type of receptor specific to calcitonin.
In the kidneys, calcitonin primarily affects which part of the nephron?
Consider where calcitonin receptors are mainly located in the kidneys.
What is the primary hormone responsible for maintaining the circulating phosphate concentration?
This hormone stimulates intestinal phosphate absorption.
Which hormone plays a role in regulating phosphate levels and is produced in osteocytes?
This hormone is produced in osteocytes and was originally called phosphatonin.
How does fibroblast growth factor-23 (FGF-23) affect phosphate uptake and loss in the body?
This hormone impairs sodium-phosphate co-transport in enterocytes and proximal tubular cells.
Which hormone is responsible for maintaining the circulating phosphate concentration?
Calcitriol indirectly restores phosphate levels.
What is the role of fibroblast growth factor-23 (FGF-23) in phosphate regulation?
FGF-23 impairs sodium-phosphate co-transport.
Where does the transcription of FGF-23 occur?
FGF-23 is transcribed in cells derived from osteoblasts.
Which hormone directly inhibits renal phosphate reabsorption?
This hormone increases phosphate loss from the body through its renal effect.
What stimulates the production of FGF-23?
FGF-23 production is influenced by phosphate levels and calcitriol.
What is the most common presentation of MEN2?
MEN2 is associated with a specific type of thyroid cancer.
How can primary hyperparathyroidism be confirmed in a patient with hypercalcaemia?
PTH levels are measured in the context of hypercalcaemia.
How is familial hypocalciuric hypercalcaemia (FHH) excluded as a cause of hypercalcaemia?
A specific ratio measurement is used to exclude FHH.
What is the mainstay of treatment for primary hyperparathyroidism?
Treatment involves the removal of affected glands.
What is the preferred approach for patients with MEN1 in managing primary hyperparathyroidism?
The approach for MEN1 patients minimizes the risk of recurrence.
Which hormone is responsible for increasing blood calcium levels?
This hormone is secreted by the parathyroid glands.
What is the primary role of calcitonin in calcium homeostasis?
Calcitonin has an opposite effect on blood calcium levels compared to PTH.
Where are the parathyroid glands located?
The parathyroid glands are in close proximity to the thyroid gland.
What is the primary target of parathyroid hormone (PTH) to increase blood calcium levels?
PTH affects the cells responsible for bone resorption.
Which factor stimulates the release of parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
PTH release is triggered when blood calcium levels fall below a certain threshold.
What is the commonest cause of hypoparathyroidism?
Think about surgical procedures involving the thyroid gland.
In sarcoidosis, how is hypercalcemia managed?
Consider the effect of steroids on giant cell expression of 1α hydroxylase.
Which population is at a higher risk for vitamin D deficiency?
Consider how sunlight exposure and skin color might influence vitamin D production.
What is the primary cause of secondary hyperparathyroidism and osteomalacia?
Think about the role of vitamin D in bone health.
How should hypoparathyroidism be managed?
Consider the essential components needed to regulate calcium levels in the absence of PTH.
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